 |
РУБРИКИ |
Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary school |
РЕКЛАМА |
||
|
Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary schoolntonation-the rising and falling of voice pitch across phrases and sentences (e.g., Are you REAdy?). Incorporating Pronunciation in the CurriculumIn general, programs should start by establishing long range oral communication goals and objectives that identify pronunciation needs as well as speech functions and the contexts in which they might occur . These goals and objectives should be realistic, aiming for functional intelligibility (ability to make oneself relatively easily understood), functional communicability (ability to meet the communication needs one faces), and enhanced self-confidence in use . They should result from a careful analysis and description of the learners' needs . This analysis should then be used to support selection and sequencing of the pronunciation information and skills for each sub-group or proficiency level within the larger learner group .To determine the level of emphasis to be placed on pronunciation within the curriculum, programs need to consider certain variables specific to their contexts. the learners (ages, educational backgrounds, experiences with pronunciation instruction, motivations, general English proficiency levels) the instructional setting (academic, workplace, English for specific purposes, literacy, conversation, family literacy) institutional variables (teachers' instructional and educational experiences, focus of curriculum, availability of pronunciation materials, class size, availability of equipment) linguistic variables (learners' native languages, diversity or lack of diversity of native languages within the group) methodological variables (method or approach embraced by the program)Incorporating Pronunciation in InstructionCelce-Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin propose a framework that supports a communicative-cognitive approach to teaching pronunciation. Preceded by a planning stage to identify learners' needs, pedagogical priorities, and teachers' readiness to teach pronunciation, the framework for the teaching stage of the framework offers a structure for creating effective pronunciation lessons and activities on the sound system and other features of North American English pronunciation. description and analysis of the pronunciation feature to be targeted (raises learner awareness of the specific feature) listening discrimination activities (learners listen for and practice recognizing the targeted feature) controlled practice and feedback (support learner production of the feature in a controlled context) guided practice and feedback (offer structured communication exercises in which learners can produce and monitor for the targeted feature) communicative practice and feedback (provides opportunities for the learner to focus on content but also get feedback on where specific pronunciation instruction is needed). A lesson on word stress, based on this framework, might look like the following: The teacher presents a list of vocabulary items from the current lesson, employing both correct and incorrect word stress. After discussing the words and eliciting (if appropriate) learners' opinions on which are the correct versions, the concept of word stress is introduced and modeled. Learners listen for and identify stressed syllables, using sequences of nonsense syllables of varying lengths (e.g., da-DA, da-da-DA-da). Learners go back to the list of vocabulary items from step one and, in unison, indicate the correct stress patterns of each word by clapping, emphasizing the stressed syllables with louder claps. New words can be added to the list for continued practice if necessary. In pairs, learners take turns reading a scripted dialogue. As one learner speaks, the other marks the stress patterns on a printed copy. Learners provide one another with feedback on their production and discrimination. Learners make oral presentations to the class on topics related to their current lesson. Included in the assessment criteria for the activity are correct production and evidence of self-monitoring of word stress. In addition to careful planning, teachers must be responsive to learners needs and explore a variety of methods to help learners comprehend pronunciation features. Useful exercises include the following: Have learners touch their throats to feel vibration or no vibration in sound production, to understand voicing. Have learners use mirrors to see placement of tongue and lips or shape of the mouth. Have learners use kazoos to provide reinforcement of intonation patterns Have learners stretch rubber bands to illustrate lengths of vowels. Provide visual or auditory associations for a sound (a buzzing bee demonstrates the pronunciation of /z/). Ask learners to hold up fingers to indicate numbers of syllables in words. 3.1.2 Use the World Wide Web in teaching English to secondary school graduates The Internet - a network that links computers all over the world - is now used widely by businesses, educators, government staff, and individuals for information gatthering, entertainment, commerce, and Communication. Much has been written about the use of Internet technologies such as e-mail, listsers, bulletin boards, and newsgroups in ESL and foreign language classroom.Skills developed through the World Wide Web. Websites cover a wide variety of topics and interests including health, entertainment, news,, and sports. These sites provide information with which learners can interact in order to built basic language and employability skills. A number of websites were created especially for English learners and contain exercises in grammar, vocabulary, writing, or reading. with the help of many websites we can develop the linguistic intelligence. It gives us opportunity to write, listen and speak. We can speak with our partners in the UK or the USA using computer's Web. For example, one of my pupils likes to write letter by e-mail. He gets more information not only about another country or city but he learns the genuine English. He is developing the Linguistic Intelligence there.with the help of Sound Card we can develop the Musical Intelli- gence. If a person listens to the music he (or she) feels the musical elements - pitch, rhythm, and timbre (understanding the characteristic qualities of a tone). 3.1.3 Use of the Video in teaching English to secondary school graduates Video can be used in a variety of instructional settings - in classrooms. In distance-learning sites where information is broadcast from a central point to learners who interact with a facilitatir via video or computer. It can be used in teachers'profecional development or with students as ways of presenting content, starting corversations, and providing illustration for concepts. Students or senior pupils can create their own videotapes as content for the class. It provides the development of MI. There are such advantages there: There are a number of good reasons to use video in the senior forms . Video combines visual and audio stimuli, is accessible to those who have not yet learned to read and write well, and provides context for leanning. As for TEFL, video has the added benefit of providing real language and cultural information. Video can be controlled (stopped, paused, repeated), and it can be presented to a group of students, to individuals. It allows learners to see facial expressions and body language at the same time as they hear the stress, intonation, and rhythms of the language. Authentic videos. Many excellent videos present real language and the senior pupils can hear the genuine language. These videos include movies, television programmes, and news broadcasts; they can provide a realistic view of American culture. Challenges The use of authentic videos is challenging. Often they do not provide the best means of explaining complex concepts or practicing particular grammar or writing skills.It takes time for the teacher to preview and select authentic videos and then to prepare activities for learners. As the language use and the context of authentic videos are not controlled, teachers will need to take time these. Selecting videos. The teachers have to ask themselves the following questions before choosing a video or video series:- Inspiration/Motivation/Interest: Will the video appeal to to my students? Will it make them want to learn?Content: Does the content match my instructional goals? Is it culturally appropriate for my learners. Clarity of message:Is the instructional message clear to my students?Here the teacher is vital. Preparing the learners to understand what they are going to watch makes the difference between time wasted and time well spent.Pacing:Is the rate of the language or instruction too fast for my students?Graphics:What graphics are used to explain a concept? Do they clarify it? Do they appear on screen long enough to be understood by the learner? In some instructional videos, graphics , charts, and even language patterns may be on the screen too briefly to be fully comprehended.Length of sequence: Is the sequence to be shown short enough? With ESL learners, segments that are less than five minutes are often sufficient. A two- to three- minute segment can easiely furnish enough material for one -hour lesson.Independence of sequence:Can this segment be understood without lengthy explanations of the plot, setting, and preceding and following it? Teachers need to decide whether it's worth investing the time and effort to prepare learners to understand the context of certain language and cultural nuances, or distinctions.Availability and quality of related materials:What print materials accompany the video.Use of videos:How will I use the video?After the viewing, the teacher have to discuss the films with the senior pupils.Videos are a powerful tool in helping English language learners improve their language skills. They provide the learner with content, context, and language. Videos will play an increase role in prividing ESL instruction to students in the classroom. The students get more information about U.S. culture. Conclusions 1.Multiple Intelligences are used as strategy for TEFL. 2.According to the structure there are seven intelligences:Logical-Mathematical Intelligence,Linguistic Intelligence,Spatial Intelligence,Musical Intelligence,Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence,The Personal Intelligence,Intrapersonal Intelligence. 3.With the help of these Intelligences we can teach English. 4.According to Howard Gardner's theory there are such principles:1.Intelligence is not singular: intelligences are multiple. 2.Every person is a unique blend of dynamic intelligences. 3.Intelligences vary in development, both within and among individuals. 4.All intelligences are dynamic. 5.Multiple intelligences can be identified and described. 6.Every person deserve opportunities to recognize and develop the multiplicity of intelligences. 7.The use of one of the intelligences can be used to enhance another intelligence. 8.Personal background density and dispersion are critical to knowledge, beliefs, and skills in all intelligences. 9.All intelligences provide alternate resources and potential capacities to become more human, regardless of age or circumstance. 10.A pure intelligence is rarely seen. 11.Developmental theory applies to the theory of multiple intelligences. I have sketched the background and the major claims of a new approach to the conceptualization and assessment of human intelligence. Put forth in 1983, the theory of multiple intelligences has inspired a number of research-and-development projects that are taking place in schools ranging from preschool through high school. Until now, our focus has fallen largely on the development of instruments that can assess strengths and weaknesses in an "intelligence-fair" way. This research-and-development process has proved time consuming and costly. The measures must involve materials that are appealing and familiar to children; there is little precedent for developing scoring systems that go beyond linguistic and logical criteria; and materials appropriate for one age group, gender, or social class may not be appropriate for others. Of course, it should be recalled that huge amounts of time and money have already been invested in standard psychometric instruments, whose limitations have become increasingly evident in recent years. Once adequate materials have been developed, it becomes possible to begin to address some of the theoretical claims that grow out of MI Theory. They have presented here some preliminary findings from one of our current projects. These results give some support to the major claims of the theory, inasmuch as children ranging in age from three to seven do exhibit profiles of relative strength and weakness. At the same time, even these preliminary data indicate that the final story on Multiple Intelligences may turn out to be more complex than we envisioned. Thus, the rather different profile of results obtained with our two young populations indicates that, in future research, we must pay closer attention to three factors: (a) the developmental appropriateness of the materials; (b) the social class background, which may well exert an influence on a child's ability and willingness to engage with diverse materials; and (c) the exact deployment of the Spectrum materials and assessment instruments in the classroom. Some critics have suggested that MI Theory cannot be disconfirmed. The preliminary results presented here indicate some of the ways in which its central claims can indeed be challenged. If future assessments do not reveal strengths and weaknesses within a population, if performances on different activities prove to be systematically correlated, and if constructs (and instruments) like the IQ explain the preponderance of the variance on activities configured to tap specific intelligences, then MI Theory will have to be revamped. Even so, the goal of detecting distinctive human strengths, and using them as a basis for engagement and learning, may prove to be worthwhile,irrespective of the scientific fate of the theory. Schools have often sought to help students develop a sense of accomplishment and self-confidence. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a theoretical foundation for recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. This theory acknowledges that while all students may not be verbally or mathematically gifted, children may have an expertise in other areas, such as music, spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge. Approaching and assessing learning in this manner allows a wider range of students to successfully participate in classroom learning. Speaking is key to communication. By considering what good speakers do, what speaking tasks can be used in class, and what specific needs learners report, teachers can help learners improve their speaking and overall oral competency. Pronunciation can be one of the most difficult parts of a language for adult learners to master and one of the least favorite topics for teachers to address in the classroom. Nevertheless, with careful preparation and integration, pronunciation can play an important role in supporting learners' overall communicative power.Bibliography 1. Аничков И.Е., Саакянц В.Н. Методика преподавания английского языка в средней школе (на англ.языке).- М:Просвещение,1966.-248 с.2. Артемов В.А. Психология обучения иностранным языкам М.:Просвещение,1966.-432 с.3. БеляевБ.В. Очерки по психологии обучения иностранным языкам.М.;Просвещение,1965. 4. Бердичевский А.А. Оптимизация системы обучения иностранному языку в педагогическом вузе.- М:Высш.школа,1989.-103 с. 5. Берман И.М. Методика обучения английскому языку,М.;Высш. Школа,1970.-230. 6. Бим И.Л. Теория и практика обучения английскому языку в средней школе.-М.Просвещение,1988.-256 с. 7. Бородулина М.К.,Минина Н.М. Основы преподавания иностранных языков в языковом вузе.-М.;Высшая школа,1968.-118 с. 8. Васильев В.А. Обучение английскому произношению в средней школе.М.;Просвещение,1979.-144 с. 9. Громова О.А. Аудио-визуальный метод и практика его применения. Учебное пособие.-М.;Высшая школа,1977.-100 с. 10.Деркач Л.Н. Психологические основы самоконтроля учащихся в процессе обучения иностранным языкам : Дис. доктора псих. наук. - К., 1994.,311 с. 11.Іванова С.В. Зособи навчання англійської мови (експериментально-фонетичне дослідження):Дис. канд.філолог. наук.,-К.,1997,186 с., 12.Зимняя И.А.Психология обучения иностранным языкам в средней школе.-М.;Просвещение,1991.-222 с. 13.Кириллова Е.П.,Лазарева Б.Т., Петрушин С.И.Хрестоматия по методике преподавания английского языка.- М.;Просвещение,1981.-207 с. 14.Китайгородская Г.А. Методические основы интенсивного обучения иностранным языкам.-М.;Изд-во Москов.ун- та,1986.-176 с. 15.Коккота В.А. Лингводидактическое тестирование . -М.; Высшая школа,1989.-127 с. 16.Корндорф Б.Ф. Методика преподавания английского языка. - М.;Учпедгиз,1958.-327 с. 17.Лапидус Б.А. Обучение второму иностранному языку как специальности.-М.;Высшая школа,1980.-173 с. 18.Лапидус Б.А. Проблемы содержания обучения языку в языковом вузе.-М.;Высшая школа,1986 - 144 с. 19.Лернер И.Я. Дидактические основы методов обучения. - М.; Педагогика,1981.-185 с. 20.Ляховицкий М.В.Методика Преподавания иностранных языков.-М.;Высш.школа,1981.-159 с. 21.Ляховицький М.В., Ніколаєва С.Ю. Індивідуалізація навчання іноземної мови в школі.- К.,Рад.школа,1978.-120 с. 22.Махмутов М.И. Вопросы организации проблемного обучепния.- Казань; Изд-во Казан. Ун-та, 1971.-63 с. 23.Методика обучения иностранным языкам в средней школе;Учебник/ Гез Н.И.,Ляховицкий М.В., Миролюбов А.В. и др.-М.;Высшая школа,1982.-373. 24.Методика преподавания иностранных языков за рубежом.- М.;Из-во Прогресс,1967.-464 с. 25.Методика обучения английской устной речи. - Л.;Учпедгиз,1963.-88 с. 26.Общая методика обучения иностранным языкам в средней школе./ Под редакцией А.В. 27.Миролюбова,И.В.Рахманова,В.С.Цетлин - М.;Просвещение,1967.-504 с. 28.ОконьВ Основы проблемного обучения.- М.;Просвещение,1968.- 208 с. 29.Онищук В.А.Типы,структура и методика урока в школе.- К.;Радянська школа,1976.-184 с. 30.Основные направления в методике преподавания иностранных языков в ХIХ-ХХ вв./ Под ред. И.В.Рахманова.- М.;Педагогика,1972.-320 с. 31.Пассов Е.И.Комуникативный метод обучения иноязычному говорению,М.;Просвещение,1991.-223 с. 32.Пассов Е.И. Основы методики обучения иностранным языкам.-М.:Русский язык, 1977.-216 с. 33.Пашковская Н.А. Лингводидактические основы обучения английскому языку.-Рад.школа,1990.-192 с. 34.Петренко О.П. Мистецтво навчання англ. мови як іноземної мови.; Автореферат дис. кандидата пед. наук . - К., 1997, - 24 с. 35.Плахотник В.М.Обучение ангийскому языку на начальном этапе в средней школе.-К.:Рад.школа,1990.-103 с. 36.Проблемный подход в обучении.-Дидактика современной школы.-К.: 1987.-351 с. 37.Рогова Г.В. Английский язык за два года.- М.:Просвещение,1982.-174 с. 38.Рогова Г.В. Методика обучения английскому языку (на анг. языке).-М.:Просвещение,1983.-351. 39.Рогова Г.В.,Верещагина И.Н.Методика обучения английскому языку на начальном этапе в средней школе.- М.:English Publ.,1986.-224 с. 40.Сердюков П.І. Теоретичні основи навчання іноземних мов у мовному вузі з використанням інформаційних технологій.: Автореферат дис. доктора пед. наук., - К., 1997. - 32 с. 41.Что значит знать язык и владеть им / Н.М.Шанский,И.Л.Резниченко,Т.С. Кудрявцева и др.; Под ред. Н.М.Шанского.-Л.:Ленингр. Отд-ние,1989.- 192 с. 42.Шубин Э.П. Языковая коммуникация и обучение иностранным языкам. М.: Просвещение, 1972.-350 с. 43.Щукин А.Н.Методика использования аудиовизуальных средств.-М.:Русский язык,1981.-128 с. 44.Armstrong ,Thomas. Seven Intelligences. - NY:,1983.-230 p. 45.Blyzniuk M. Lecture-Notes on Methodology of TEFL. Chernivtsi, 1999.-163 p. 46.Barkman,Robert.Patterns and the Eighth Intelligence. Zephyr Press,Spring,1997.-105 p. 47.Campbell,Bruce. Multiplying Intelligence in the Classroom.On the Beam,Vol IX, N2,Winter 1989.-127 p. 48.Campbell,Bruce. The Multiple Intelligences.NY,1995.-198 p. 49.Campbell,Bruce.The research Results of a Multiple Intelligences Classroom.NY,1990.-211 p. 50.Campbell,Linda,Cample,Bruce,and Dickson,Dee. Teaching and Learning Through MultipleIntelligences. NY:Allyn&Bacon. 1998( 2nd edition) ,-142 p. 51.Dickinson,Dee.Learning Through Many Kinds of Intelligence. NY,1994.-412 p. 52.Ellison,Launa.Using Multiple Intelligences. Educational Leadership,October,1992, p. 69-72. 53.Enloe,W., and Simon, K. Methods of teaching English. NY,1993- 121 p. 54.Fogarty, R., Perkins, D., and Barell, J. How to teach ESL.NY,1992.-142 p. 55.Gardner, Howard. Intelligence in Seven Steps. NY,1991.-245 p. 56.Gardner, Howard, Mindy L. Kornhaber, Warren K. Wake. Intelligence: Multiple Perspectives. NY: Harcourt, Brace. 1996.- 211p. 57.Gardner, Howard. Art Education and Human Development.Los Angeles: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts, NY,1990.- 316p. 58.Gardner, Haward. Art,Mind and Brain. NY.: Basic Books, 1982.- 314 p. 59.Gardner, H. And Perkins, D. (Eds). Art,Mind, and Education. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. The Spring, 1988 issue of 60.Journal of Aesthetic Education. 1987.-116 p. 61.Gardner, H. The Arts and Human Development. NY: Wiley, 1973.-321 p. 62.Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences ( 10 th Anniversary Edition ). NY:Basic Books, 1993.-345 p. 63.Gardner, Howard. The Mind's New Science. NY: Basic Boocs, 1985.-134 p. 64.Gardner, Howard. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. NY: Basic Books, 1992.-231 p. 65.Gardner, Howard, and Thomas Hatch. Multiple Intelligences in the senior forms. NY, 1989. -145 p. 66.Gardner, Howard, and Tina Blythe. A school for All Intelligences. Educational Leadership April, 1990, p.33-37. 67.Gardner, Howard Veenema, Shirley . Multimedia and Multiple Intelligences, The American Prospect no.29 (November- December 1996): p. 69-75 68.Hoerr, Thomas R. How our school Applied Multiple Intelligences Theory. Educational Leadership, October, 1992, 67-768. 69.Smagorinsky, Peter. Expressions:Multiple Intelligences in the English Class. - Urbana. IL:National Council of teachers of English,1991. - 240 p. 70.Wahl, Mark. Multiple Intelligences. NY, 1999. - 150 p.SupplementsSupplement 1. Relation of the Methodology of Foreign Language Teaching to other sciencesMethods of foreign language teaching is understood here as a body of scientifically tested theory concerning the teaching of foreign languages in schools and others educational institutions. It covers three main problems:1. aims of teaching a foreign language;2. content of teaching, i.e. what to teach to attain the aims;3. methods and techniques of teaching, i.e. how to teach a foreign language to attain the aims in the most effective way.Methods of foreign language teaching is closely related to other sciences such as pedagogies, psychology, physiology, linguistics and some others.Pedagogics is the science concerned with the teaching and education of the younger generation. Since Methods also deals with the problems of teaching and education, it is most closely related to pedagogics. To study foreign language teaching one must know pedagogics. One branch of pedagogics is called didactics. Didactics studies general ways of teaching in schools. Methods, as compared to didactics, studies the specific ways of teaching a definite subject. Thus, it may be considered special didactics. In the foreign language teaching, as well as in the teaching of mathematics, history and other subjects taught in schools, general principles of didactics are applied and, in their turn, influence and enrich didactics. For example, the so-called “principle of visualization" was first introduced in teaching foreign languages. Now it has become one of the fundamental prin-ciples of didactics and is used in teaching all school subjects without exception. Programmed instruction was first ap-plied to teaching mathematics. Now through didactics it is used in teaching many subjects, including foreign lan-guages.Teaching a foreign language means first and foremost the formation and development of pupils' habits and skills in hearing, speaking, reading, and writing. We cannot ex-pect to develop such habits and skills of our pupils effec-tively if we do not know and take into account the p s y c h o l o g y of habits and skills, the ways of forming them, the influence of formerly acquired habits 'on the formation of new ones, and many other necessary factors that psychology can supply us with. At present we have much material in the field of psychology which can be applied to teaching a foreign language. For example, N. I. Zhinkin, in his investigation of the mecha-nisms of speech came to the conclusion that words and rules of combining them are most probably dormant in the kinetic center of the brain. When the ear receives a signal it reaches the brain, its hearing center and then passes to the kinetic center. Thus, if a teacher wants his pupils to speak English he must use all the opportunities he has to make them hear and speak it. Furthermore, to master a sec-ond language is to acquire another code, another way of receiving and transmitting information. To create this new code in the most effective way one must take into consid-eration certain psychological factors.Effective learning of a foreign language depends to a great extent on the pupils' memory. That is why a teacher must know how he can help his pupils to successfully memorize and retain in memory the language material they learn. Here again psychological investigations are significant. In learning a subject both voluntary and in-voluntary memory is of great importance. In his investigation of involuntary memory P. K. Zinchenko came to the con-clusion that this memory is retentive. Consequently, in teaching a foreign language we should create favourable conditions for involuntary memorizing. P. K. Zinchenko showed that involuntary memorizing is possible only whenpupils attention is concentrated not on fixing the material in their memory through numerous repetitions, but on solv-ing some mental problems which deal with this material. To prove this the following experiment was carried out. Students of group A were given a list of words to memorize (voluntary memorizing). Students of group B did not re-ceive a list of words to memorize. Instead, they got an English text and some assignments which made them work with these words, use them in answering various questions. Dur-ing the next lesson a vocabulary test was given to the stu-dents of both groups. The results were approximately the same. A test given a fortnight later proved, however, that the students of group B retained the words in their memory much better than the students of group A. This shows that involuntary memorizing may be more retentive under certain circumstances. Experiments by prominent scientists show that psychology helps Methods to determine the role of the mother tongue in different stages of teaching; the amount of material for pupils to assimilate at every stage of instruc-tion; the sequence and ways in which various habits and skills should be developed; the methods and techniques which are more suitable for presenting the material and for ensuring its retention by the pupils, and so on.Methods of foreign language teaching has a definite relation to p h y s i o 1 o g y of the higher nervous system. Pavlov's theories of "conditioned reflexes", of the "second signaling system" and of "dynamic stereotype" are the examples. Each of these interrelated theories bears a direct relation to the teaching of a foreign language.According to Pavlov habits are conditioned reflexes, and a conditioned reflex is an action performed automatically in response to a definite stimulus as a result of previ- ous frequent repetitions of the same action. If we, thoroughly study the theory of conditioned reflexes we shall see that it explains and confirms the necessity for frequent repetitions and revision of material pupils study as one of the means of inculcating habits. Pavlov showed that man's higher nervous activities -- speaking and thinking -- are the func-tions of a special system of organic structures within the nervous system. This system is developed only in man. It enables the brain to respond to inner stimuli as it responds to outer stimuli or signals perceived through the sense or-gans. Pavlov named this the second signaling system.Consequently one of the forms of human behaviour is language behaviour, i. e., speech response to different communica-tion situations. Therefore in teaching a foreign language we must bear in mind that pupils should acquire the language they study as a behaviour, as something that helps people to communicate with each other in various real situations of intercourse. Hence a foreign language should be taught through such situations.Pavlov's theory of "dynamic stereotype" also furnishes the physiological base for many important principles of language teaching, e. g., for the topical vocabulary ar-rangement. Methods of foreign language teaching is most closely related to linguistics, since linguistics deals with the problems which are of paramount importance to Meth-ods, with language and thinking, grammar and vocabulary, the relationship between grammar and vocabulary, and many others. Methods successfully uses, for example, the results of linguistic investigation in the selection and arrangement of language material for teaching. It is known that structur-al linguistics has had a great impact on language teach-ing. Teaching materials have 'been prepared by linguists and methodologists of the structural school. Many prom-inent linguists have not only developed the theory of lin-guistics, but tried to apply it to language teaching. The following quotation may serve as a proof of this:"It has occurred to the linguist as well a s to the psycholo-gist that the foreign language classroom should be an excel-lent laboratory in which to test new theories of language acquisition." Methods of foreign language teaching like any other sci-ence, has definite ways of investigating the problems which may arise. They are:1. a critical study of the ways foreign languages were taught in our country and abroad;2. a thorough study and summing up of the experience of the best foreign language teachers in different types of schools;3. experimenting with the aim of confirming or refuting the working hypotheses that may arise during investigation. Experimenting becomes more and more popular with methodologists. In experimenting methodologists have to deal with different data, that is why in arranging research work they use mathematics, statistics, and probability theory to interpret experimental results.In recent years there has been a great increase of interest in Methods since foreign language "teaching has many attrac-tions as an area for research. A great deal of useful research work has been carried out. New ideas and new data pro-duced as the result of research are usually developed into new teaching materials and teaching techniques.It should be said that we need research activities of the following types: descriptive research which deals with "what to teach"; experimental and instrumental research dealing with "how to teach". More research is now needed which compares different combination of devices, various teaching aids. Supplement 2. Methods of Foreign Language TeachingAt the term of the 17th century Volfgang Ratichius (1571-1635) complained about contemporary methods of LT stressed rote learning and grammar at the expense of reading and spearing. He initiated the principle of cognitive leaning of Latin translation as a basic means of semantization and emphasized on repetition as a favored technique. But it remained for his successor, the famous Czech educator Ian Comenius (1592-1670) to devise new methods of LT based on new principles. Instead of rules, I. Comenius used imitation, repetition and plently of practice in both reading and speaking.In 1631 Ian Comenius published his book “Ianua linguarum reserata” - “The Gates of Languages Unlocked” in which he described new methods of language teaching based on his principles. The book included a limited vocabulary of a few thousand word; each used in a sentence which gave some indication of meaning.“Orbis Pictus” (1658) is another book by Ian Comenius in which a Latin text is accompanied by illustrations and translations into the mother tongue. Great attention is paid to direct associations between the word in a FL and an object it denotes. In this way the role of the mother tongue was limited. Ian Comenius recommended the following principles:– from easy to difficult;– from simple to complex;– from know to unknown. Language teaching remained the chief concern of Ian Comenius. His “Linguarum methodus novissima” (Contemporary/modern methods revised) contains one of the first attempts to teach grammar inductively. “Didactica Magna” was a more ambitious work that went beyong language teaching and laid the foundations for modern pedagogy.Grammar-Translation MethodThis method has been with us through the centuries and is still with us. It has had different names; at one time it was called Classical Method since it was used in the teaching of the classical language, Latin and Greek. The method involves many written exercises, much translation and lengthy vocabulary lists. The teacher describes in detail the grammar of the language, focusing on the form and infection of words. This method aims at providing an understanding of the grammar of the language in question expressed in traditional terms, and at training the students to read and write the target language, rather than mastering the oral and aural skills. To do this the students need to learn the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language. It was hoped that, by doing this students would become more familiar with the grammar of the native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language better. It was also thought that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually; it was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway.Students study grammar deductively: that is, they are given rules and examples, they are told to memorise then, and then are asked to apply rules to other examples. They also learn grammatical paradigms such as the plural of nouns, degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs, verb conjugations. They memories native language equivalents for foreign language vocabulary lists.The techniques of G-TM imply bilingual vocabulary lists, written exercises, elaborate grammatical explanations, translation, and total involvement in reading and writing.The objectives of G-TM are non-utilitarian - confined to understanding of literature which gives keys to great classical culture.The advantages of this method lie in its limited objectives: understanding of written language and some basic writing and translation. The method is not demanding for the teacher (simple preparation from a textbook and little physical endeavour).The disadvantages of this method include a total neglect of spoken language, communication skills, use of esoteric vocabulary, and monotonous procedure in class.Thus the Grammar-Translation Method is simply a combination of the activities of grammar and translation. The teacher begins with rules isolated vocabulary items, paradigms and translation. Pronunciation either is not taught or is limited to a few introductory notes. Grammar rules are memorized as units, which sometimes include illustrative sentences.Harold Palmer's MethodHarold Palmer the great English authority and teacher, experimented extensively with the question-answer method. He considered question-answer work to be “the most effective of all language learning exercise ever devised”.Palmer insisted, however, that if this technique was to be carried out successfully, all questions asked by the teacher must be carefully planned and thought out beforehand. Questions should never be haphazard, either in form or content. Specifically, H. Palmer thought that any question asked by the teacher should be of a nature that admits the following:a) an obvious answer, not an answer that requires one or more complicated acts of judgement on the part of the student;b) an easy answer, not one that requires the use of word, facts, or constructions unknown to the student;c) a relevant answer, direct answer involving only a moderate change through the process of conversion, substitution, or completion of the material contained in the teacher's question.In H. Palmer's view, there are three stages of learning:1. Receiving knowledge.2. Fixing it in the memory by repetition.3. Using the knowledge by real practice.H. Palmer was the author of some 50 theoretical works, textbooks and manuals. Of great interest are H. Palmer's “100 Substitution Tables”, in which sentence patterns are arranged in tables for pupils to make up their sentences, following the pattern. His main findings can be conveniently summarized as the following objectives:1. Phonetic, semantic and syntactic aspects.2. Oral speech by way of speaking and understanding.3. Accumulation of passive material with subsequent active reproduction.4. Techniques used for translation include visuality, interpretation and verbal context.5. Speech patterns to be learn by heart.6. Rational selection of vocabulary based on frequency counts and utility.7. Topical selection: minimum vocabulary list of 3000 words.H. Palmer paid great attention to a system of exercises, which in his should include:1. receptive -question and short answers to them;2. receptive-imitative -words and word-combinations repeated after the teacher;3. conversational -questions, answers, commands and completion of sentences.Thus H. Palmer method is based on rationalization of teaching/learning process and systematic selection of material. Teaching speaking features prominelity in H. Palmer's method, hence its name “oral method”.Direct MethodThe Direct Method appeared as a reaction to the GTM and the failure to procedure learns who could use the foreign language they had been studying.The Direct Method was based on the belief that students could learn a language through listening to it and that they learn to speak by speaking it - associating speech with appropriate action, like the way the children learn native tongue. The Direct Method received its name from the fact that meaning is to be related to the target language directly, without going through the process of translating into the student's native language.The various “oral” and “natural” methods which developed at the turn of the century may be grouped under DM. The students learn new words and phrases from objects. Actions and mime. When the meaning of words could not be made clear, the teacher would resort to semantization but never to native language translations. From the beginning, students are accustomed to hearing complete meaningful sentences in the target language. Grammar is taught at a later stage inductively, numerous examples of a certain principle are presented and the rule is then inferred from these examples. An explicit grammar rule may never be given.Students learn to think in the target language as soon as possible. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use in full sentences, rather than memorizing long lists of words. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Although work on all four skills occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic. Thus the reading and writing exercises are based upon what the students have orally practiced first. Pronunciation also receives due attention from the beginning of the course. Desides studying every speech the learns also do history, geography and culture of the country or countries where the language spoken.The teacher who employs DM asks the students to self-correct their answers by asking them to make a choice between what they said and alternate answer he supplies. There are, of course, other ways of getting students to self-correct. For example, a teacher might simply repeat what a student has just said using a questioning voice to signal to the student that something was wrong with it. Another possibility is for teacher to repeat what the student said, stopping just before the error. The student then knows that the next word was wrong. There are also other options of remedial work.The main principles of DM can be summarized under the following headings:Techniques1. FL used throughout.2. Audio-visual approach.3. Speech before reading.4. No translation-meaning conveyed through visual/mime.Objectives1. Fluency in speech.2. Capacity to think in target language.3. Meaningful everyday language.4. Grammar to be include from practice.5. Explanations in foreign language.Pros1. Lively procedure in classroom.2. Correct pronunciation.3. Absence of rule-giving.4. Learning through doingCons1. Plunges learners too soon into unstructured situations.2. Foreign-Language learner not like infant native-language learner.3. Dangers of including wrong rule.4. Tremendous energy needed be teacher.Audio-Lingual MethodThe Audio-Lingual Method like the Direct Method we have just examined, has a goal very different from that of the Grammar-Translation Method. The Audio-Lingual Method was developed in the United States during the Second World War. At that time there was a need for people to learn foreign languages rapidly for military purposes. As we have seen G-TM did not prepare people to use the target language. While the communication in the target language was the goal of DM, there were at the time exciting new ideas about language and learning emanating from the disciplines of descriptive linguistics and behavioural psychology.We can trace the Audio-Lingual Method rather directly to the “scientific” linguistics of Leonard Bloomfield and his followers. Both behaviouristic psychology and structural linguistics constituted a reaction against a vague and unscientific approach to the questions of human behaviour. Including the acquisition of knowledge.Every language, as it is viewed here, has its own unique system. This system is comprised of several different levels: phonological, lexical, and syntactical. Each level has its own distinctive features.Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Lingual Method. The level of complexity of the speech is graded so that beginning students are presented with only simple forms.The structures of the language are emphasised over all other areas. The syllabus is typically a structural one, with the structure for any particular unit include in the new dialogue. Vocabulary is also contextualized within the dialogue. It is however, limited since the emphasis is placed on the acquisition of the patterns of the language.The underlying provision of this method include five maxims to guide teachers in applying the result of linguistic research to the preparation of teaching materials and to classroom techniques:8. Language is speech, not writing.a) Emphasis on correct pronunciation from the beginning;b) Listening and speaking before reading and writing;c) Realistic, situation utterances from start;d) Oral mastery first; reading/writing as reinforcers; time lag will depend on sitution.9. Language is a set of habits.a) Based on the assumption that language learning is a habit formation process, pattern drilling and dialogue memorization are extensively used;10. Teach the language, not about language;a) Revolt against the grammar-translation method;b) Grammar for the teacher not the learner;c) Learn through doing, through active practiced) Practice first, rules induced later.11. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say:a) Emphasis on colloquial wealth of language;b) Literary language at much later stage;c) Traditional grammar mistrusted: functional styles (occupational, emotive, informative) studied as well as language of attitude.12. Languages are different:a) Universal rules of transformational grammar mistrusted;b) Contrastive studies of language encouraged;c) Translation accepted when necessary or possible;d) Translation a later skill with its own techniquesTechniques:1. Situational dialogues.2. Everyday language.3. Emphasis on speaking - aural - oral active participation.4. Mimicry-memorisation.5. Pattern-drilling-choral/individual - Role playing/Dialogue building.6. Reading and writing to reinforce.7. Awareness of graphic interference.8. Rules to be induced from practice.A-LM enables the students to use the target language communicatively. In order to do this the students are believed to overlearn the target language. To learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. The students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.The teacher is like an orchestral leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of the students. He is also responsible for providing his students with a good model of imitation. The students are imitators of the teacher's model or the tapes he supplies of model speakers. They follow the teacher's directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as they can.New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues and texts. These are learnt through imitation and repetition, transposition are based upon the patterns in the dialogue or texts. Students successful responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is induced from the example given; explict grammar rules are not provided. Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogues and texts or presented by the teacher. Students' reading and writing work is based upon the oral work they did earlier. Thus the main provisions of this method can be conveniently summarized in the following way: Fluency on four skills with initial emphasis on listening and speaking. Formative function: understanding culture through language.Pros:1. Useful language learnt from outset.2. Good pronunciation achieved through sound discrimination and auditory practice.3. Materials especially devised on contrastive analysis rather than total structures -presentation based on frequency counts and utility. 4. Reading and writing not neglected but postponed to serve as reinforcement.5. Highly motivating: learner senses achievement from beginning through practical use and participation.6. A-LM requires and encourages use of simple and mechanical aids.Cons:1. Lack of spontaneity if learning is overmechanical.2. Reliance on inductive process dangerous.3. Time lag between oral and written work: dependence on ear alone can lead to insecurity - emotional dislike of aural-oral work and invention of graphic equivalents.4. A-LM for all students? Average student does best, intelligent student border?5. Makes considerable demand on the teacher: preparation/drilling/imagination.6. Is order of presentation natural?7. Does A-LM produce language illiterates -fluent speakers who cannot read or write?Possible remedies:1. Avoid dull drills -contextualize: use variety.2. Practice should be meaningful and point of drill should be explained to the learner and understood.3. Time lag must vary according to situation - in some cases oral/written work side be side.4. Intelligent students should be told that practice makes perfect - hence importance of fluency, clarity and precision.5. Order of presentation probably logical though analogy with child learner not relevant. Adult is trained to think and use books/dictionaries, but without first learning how to pronounce words he will not learn how to read well.6. Experience showed that A-LM trainer learner did better is all skills than traditional counterpart except in writing.Though the emphases at the beginning are strongly on listening and speaking, no devaluation of literature is implied. It appears that mastery of sound system of a language is essential for efficient reading and for appreciation of literature. One of the qualities that makes a work of literature great is the choice of words and phrases, and one of the factors that governs this choice is how they sound. “To read a work of literature without any idea of what it sounded like to the writer is to be as handicapped as the tone-deaf listening to music or the colour-blind looking at a painting”.Losanov's Method or Suggestive MethodFew methods have been met with claims ranging from sensational to skeptical: mysterious and costly, a highly questionable new gimmick (one critic has unkindly called it “a package of pseudo-scientific gobbledygook”) and far remote from language teaching styles as language sleep learning, medative relaxation, electrical and sound impulses (E. Davydova).Suggestopedia as G. Lozanov called his pedagogical application of :The Science of Suggestology” aims at neutralizing learning inibitions and de-suggesting false limitations that cultural norms impose on learning.The suggestive method or Suggestopedia is a modification of direct method. The originator of this method believes, as does Silent Way's Caleb Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a much faster rate than what ordinarily transpires. In G. Losanov's view the reason for the pupils inefficiency is that they set up psychological barriers that block the way to learning. They fear that they will be unable to perform, that they will be limited in the ability to learn, and finally fail. One result is that the learners' full mental powers are not engaged. According to G. Losanov and his proponents, only five per cent of the learners' mental capacity is used. In order to make better use of the mental reserves the limitations, which they think we have, need to be "desuggested". Suggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful and, thereby, to help them overcome the barriers to learning.The behaviourist principles of G. Losanov's method assume the form of five maxims:1. Get the learners to utter the same structure repeatedly.2. Get them to do so correctly. 3. Do this through good grading of structures by arranging them in order of difficulty and by introducing them one at a time if possible. 4. The behaviourist approach is repetition and drilling to the point where the learner automatically makes the correct response.5. Lessons must be designed so as to prevent the learners from making mistakes.Behaviourist psychology described all learning (including language acquisition) as a matter of conditioning - as the formation of habits through responses to outside stimuli. Thus one learns a language through mimicry, memorisation and analogy .Communication takes place on "two planes": on linguistic and psychological one. On the linguistic plane the message is encoded; and on the psychological are factors which influence the linguistic message. On the conscious plane, the learner attends to the language; on the subconscious plane, the music suggests that learning is easy and pleasant; when there is a unity between conscious and subconscious, learning is enhanced .The class, where this method is used, is different from other classrooms - the students are seated in cushioned armchairs that are arranged in a semicircle facing the front of the room. The teacher is lively, dynamic, confidant, yet sensitive, and speaks only the target language, which suggests that the learners do the same. In the firsts three-hour meeting all learners choose a new name and nationality, after which they are given a fictional autobiography. By means of song, imitation, and play, the learners introduce themselves to each other and assume their new roles. Then over the next two days, the teacher twice presents a long script, each time with a different aim and a different learning set-up; these script performances called "concert sessions", are accompanied by music. In the first of these, the "active concert session", the music is emotional, and the tone of the artistic presentation reflects the character of the music. The learners have the script in two languages arranged in short phrases on opposite sides of the page. After the "concert session" come various kinds of elaboration activities, including group and choral reading of parts of the scripts, singing and playing games as a group and individually. The second day the script is performed again, this time in a "pseudopassive concert session” where a state of wakeful relaxation is artfully stimulated. This reading is accompanied by music of a different tone and mood, generally barouque style. Following that, the learners (in their new identities) are aided again in elaborating the script in various ways. This may include narrating a story or event, or creating an original story, using the language in the script .Gradually the selection of vocabulary becomes more elaborate. It may include situations from literary works, rustic scenes, and facts from everyday life. Using pantomime to help the students understand, the teacher acts out various occupations, such as pilot, singer, carpenter and artist. The students choose what they want to be.The teacher reads a dialogue partly in English and partly through pantomime, and outlines the dialogue's story. He also calls his students attention to some of the comments regarding vocabulary and grammar structures.Next, the teacher asks the students to read the dialogue in a sad way, in an angry way and finally in an amorous way. This is followed by asking questions about the dialogues. Sometimes he asks the students to repeat an English line after him; still other times he addresses a question from the dialogue to an individual student.So, the principles and techniques of Suggestopedia can be conveniently summarized under the following headings:1. classroom set-up;2. positive suggestion;3. visualization;4. choosing a new indentity;5. role-play;6. concert;7. primary activation (the students playfully re-read the dialogue);8. secondary activation (the students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously).Activities particularly recommended for this phase include singing, dancing, dramatisations, games. The important thing is that the activities are varied and don't allow the students to focus on the form of the linguistic message, just the communicative intent.And finally, instruction is designed so as to tap more successfully the learning powers of the mind and eliminate psychological barriers that block learning and inhibit production. The lessons are pleasant, interesting, and nonthreatening; the teacher gives lots of encouragement, and similar admonitions.Eclectic Method Having come to the realisation that each learner possesses distinct:cognitive and personality traits, it follows that one teaching methodology will not be the most appropriate for all students. The recent tendency has therefore been towards eclecticism, selecting materials and techniques from various sources. This obviously puts a much larger responsibility on the teacher, for now he should be familiar with a much wider range of materials, exercises and activities than before. It is no longer a matter of picking up the textbook and following it page by page. Depending on the content and difficulty of the subject matter, the learner would apply one or more of these different types of learning in a given situation. Evidently, if the teacher is to be aware of this multiple individual cognitive and personality factors and be able diagnose and utilise them to the fullest, he must have more than a passing knowledge of the recent investigation in all related sciences. But the problem lies not only in lies amount of information to be mastered but in the organization and application of that knowledge to a practical situation.An eclecticist tries to absorb the best techniques of all well-known language-teaching methods into his classroom procedures and seeks the balaced development of all four skills at all stages while retaining emphasis on an oral presentation first. He adopts his methods to the changing objectives of the day and to the types of students who pass through his classroom. The eclectic teacher is imaginative, energetic, resourceful, and willing to experiment. His lessons are varied and interesting.Techniques1. Some grammatical explanations in native language. 2. Translation as short-cut to conveying meaning.3. Balanced development of four skills at all stages with emphasis an aural-oral procedures. .4. Adjustments according to needs of class and personalities of teachers.Communicative Method of FLTA comparative study of methods and approaches in TEFL/TESL has shown that the past methodologies seem to have pursued too narrow objectives. A flexible uniform language-teaching strategy should be based on a careful selection of facets of various methods and their integration into a cohesive, coherent working procedure which will suit the realities of the particular teaching situation. It is assumed that the goal of language leaching is the learner's ability to communicate in target language. It is assumed that the content of a language course will include linguistic structures, semantic notions, and social functions. Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer meaning in situations where one student has information that the others lack. Students often engage in role-play or dramatizations to adjust their use of the target language to different social contexts. Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life situations and demands. Skills are integrated from the beginning: a given activity might involve reading, speaking, listening and perhaps also writing. The teacher's role is primarily to facilitate communication and only secondarily to correct errors. The teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately. Written activities should be used sparingly with younger children. Children of six or seven years old are often not yet proficient in mechanics of writing in their own language.In methodological literature of the last two decades the word "communicative" is the most frequently used one. Communicative method (sometimes referred to as approach) grew out of the works of anthropological linguists who view language first and foremost as the system of communication .This method stresses the need to teach communicative competence as opposed to the linguistic competence: thus functions are emphasized over form. The long and complex history of communicative competence and the importance of the relation between ideas about the nature of language and their social, intellectual and cultural contexts have become a major concern not only for methodologists, linguists, but also for psychologists and social theorists.Communicative theory enables learners to realize that every speech act takes place in a specific social situation. Psychological factors (the learners' age, sex, complement of the group, pupil's personality, their roles, etc.) as well as linguistic factors (a topic of discussion, type of discourse; a colloquial, informal or formal variety of English (also known as register) play a crucial role here. In other words appropriateness and accessibility of speech in the particular social situation are as equally important as accuracy of pronunciation and grammar.Communicative competence is the ability of learners to use the language appropriately for the given socio-cultural context. To do this the learners should be able to manage the process of negotiating meaning with the teacher and among themselves.Communicative competence is not a compilation of items, but a set of strategies or creative procedures for realizing the value of linguistic elements in contextual use, an ability to make sense as a participant of spoken or written discourse by shared knowledge of code resources and rules of language use .The content of communicative instruction is based on the concept that the process of instruction and the model of communication. All this does not necessarily mean that the process of instruction is the exact replica of the process of communication. When we communicate, we use the language to accomplish some function, such as persuading, arguing, agreeing, disagreeing or promising. Moreover, we carry out these functions within an appropriate social context. A speaker will choose a peculiar way to express his argument according to his intent, his level of emotion, and what his relationships with the collocutor are. For example, he may be more direct in arguing with his friend than with his senior.Furthermore, since communication is a process, it is insufficient for learners to simply have knowledge of target language forms, meanings, and functions. Students must be able to apply this knowledge in negotiating meaning. It is through the interaction between speaker and listener (or reader and writer) that meaning becomes clear, the listener gives the speaker feedback as to whether or not he understood what the speaker has said. In this way the speaker can revise what he has said and try to communicate Ins intended meaning again, if necessary.In communication, the speaker has a choice of what he will say and how he will say. If the exercise is tightly controlled so that the pupils can only say something in one way, the speaker has no choice and the exchange, therefore, is not communicative. In a chain drill, for example, a student must answer his collocutor's question. In the same way he replied lo someone else's question. Therefore, the student has no choice of form and content and quasi-communication occurs.True communication is purposeful. The speaker can thus evaluate whether his intent, based upon the information he receives from the listener, has been achieved. If the listener does not have an opportunity to provide the speaker with such feedback, then the exchange is not really communicative.Communication has parameters which are difficult to prognose, there are no certain guidelines to govern this interactive process. To model communication means to establish basic constraints, its underlying principles which include:1. individual approach;2. functional approach (stresses the context rather than the very structure of language);3. communication-oriented activity;4. personal involvement;5. situational approach;6. novelty;7. heuristics.The teacher's role is to have his students to become communicatively competent. To do this students need knowledge of the linguistic forms, meanings, and functions. They need to be reminded that the said categories are in dialectical unity and many different forms can be used to perform a function, as well as a single form can often serve a variety of functions. They must be able to choose from these forms the most appropriate one, given the socio-cultural context and the roles of the interlocutors.The teacher's role is to facilitate the teaching/learning process, to establish situations which will promote communication. During the activities he acts as an advisor, answering his students questions and monitoring their performance. At other times he might be a "co-communicator" - engaging in the communicative activity along with the Students .Since the teacher's role is less dominant than in a teacher-centered method, (DM, A-LM, CC-LT, etc.) students are seen as more responsible managers of their own learning. The most obvious characteristics of the communicative method is that almost everything that is done is done with a communicative purpose. Students use the language a great deal through communicative activities such as games, role-plays, and problem-solving tasks.Activities are truly communicative according to Johnson K. and Marrow K., they cover three features; information gap, choice, and feedback. Another characteristic feature of CM is the use of authentic materials. It is considered desirable to give students an opportunity to developstrategies for understanding language as it is actually used by native speakers.Finally, such activities are carried out by students in small groups. Small numbers of students interacting are favored in order to maximize the time allotted to each student for learning to negotiate meaning.The teacher is the initiator of the activities, but he does not always interact with the students. Sometimes he is a co-communicator, but oftener he establishes real-life situations that prompt communication between and among the students. The students interact a great deal with one another. They do this in various configurations: pairs, triads, small groups, and the whole class.One of the basic assumptions of CM is that students will be more motivated to study a FL since they will feel to do something useful with the language they study.The teachers give students an opportunity to express their individuality by having them share their ideas and opinions on a regular basis. This helps students "to integrate the foreign language with their own personality and thus to feel more emotionally secure with it" .Learners' mistakes should not be constantly corrected but regarded with greater tolerance, as a completely normal phenomenon in the development of communicative skills. In short, communicative method leaves the learner scope to contribute his own personality to the learning process. It also provides the teacher with scope to step out of his didactic role in order to be a "human among humans" .Finally, students' security is enhanced by many opportunities for cooperative interaction with their fellow students and the teacher.Culture is the everyday lifestyle of people who are native speakers of the language. There are certain aspects of it that are especially important to communication -the use of non-verbal behaviour, which receives greater attention in CM.Students work on all four skills from the beginning. The target language should be used not only during communicative activities, but also, for example, in explaining the activities to the students or in assigning homework. The students learn from these classroom management exchanges, and realise that the target language is a means and vehicle of communication, not just a subject to be studied. The teacher supervises his students' performance at every stage of their work. He evaluates not only their accuracy, but their fluency and prosody as well. The student who has the most control of the structures and vocabulary is not always the best communicator. For more formal evaluation, a teacher is recommended to use a communicative test. This is an integrative test which has a real communicative function.The teacher also assumes an integrated approach to students' errors. Errors of form are tolerated and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills. Some students can have limited linguistic knowledge and still be successful communicators.To substantiatiate and implement CM into practice means to go beyond its general description. It is important to take into account all methodological functions of these underlying principles, their content, and see what results could be anticipated in all four skills of activity.Thus communicative competence entails not solely grammatical accuracy but knowledge of socio-cultural rules of appropriateness, discourse norms - the ability to sustain coherent discourse with another speaker, and strategies for ensuring remedial work for potential breakdown in communications.Emphasis is placed on developing motivation to learn through establishing meaningful, purposeful, coherent discourses in the target language. Individuality is encouraged, as well as cooperation with peers. Who contribute to a sense of achievement and emotional security with the target language. Supplement 3. The Seven Intelligences Intelligence End-States Core Components Logical- Scientist Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or mathematical Mathematician numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning. Linguistic Poet Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings Journalist of words; sensitivity to different functions of language. Musical Composer Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, Violinist pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness. Spatial Navigator Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world Sculptor accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions. Bodily- Dancer Abilities to control one's body movements and kinesthetic Athlete to handle objects skillfully. Interpersonal Therapist Capacities to discern and respond appropriately Salesman to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people. Intrapersonal Person with Access to one's own feelings and the ability to detailed, discriminate among them and draw upon them accurate self- to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own knowledge strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences. Supplement 4.
|
|
© 2007 |
|